Monteverdi: Vespers (1610) Contents Appendices This material is accessible on the internet, as well as on the multimedia CD-ROM and printed format. Last update:
April 6, 2005
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Claudio Monteverdi’s Vespro della Beata Vergine (1610) is one of his most glorious works. When Monteverdi published Vespers in Venice, he was known as the most prolific composer of secular music in all Vespro della Beata Vergine is a set of psalms, vocal and instrumental concertos and ritornelli, which uses the force of several vocal soloists, a 6-to-10-part vocal ensemble (which many times splits into two independent multi-voice choirs), and an instrumental ensemble of 10 or more different instruments. The subject of this paper is the analysis of the work, with an emphasis on the historical context and performance practice. The paper will present a brief biographical sketch of the composer, recommendations for a historically accurate performance and the forces that should be used in the performance. It will also address the practical challenges and problems during the preparation process, methods to overcome these problems, and the conventions that might mislead an inexperienced performer. The paper will also analyze the movements of the work through the current research both from a musicologist’s and performer’s point of view. Finally, the paper will present comments on the performance itself through the analysis of the currently available recordings. 2 Monteverdi between Cremona and Venice Claudio Monteverdi was born in Cremona, in 1567. His musical education started in the boy choir of the cathedral of Cremona, where he studied with Marc Antonio Ingegneri (1547-1592), the cathedral’s prefect of music. Monteverdi published his first collection Canticulae sacrae in 1582, when he was only fifteen. The publication announced his brilliance and innovation, which was still to be revealed. As a child prodigy, he continued with a new publication in the following year, and by 1584, when Monteverdi published his third book, he was able to have it published by Vincenti & Amadino – a Venetian publishing house which later is to become his main publisher. Three years later, in 1587, Monteverdi published his First Book of Madrigals. He was only nineteen, but with already four published volumes behind him. In 1589 Monteverdi started exploring other opportunities, thinking of satisfying his musical ambitions beyond Mantua. He first visited Milan but he did not stay there, and in 1590 he took a position at the court of Vincenzo I, Duke of Mantua.[1] His further publications and the prestigious post made him the most famous composer of secular music at that time. He was prolific not only as a composer, but was known as an accomplished singer and viol player as well. In 1596, the maestro di cappella[2] of the Mantuan Cathedral died, and Monteverdi decided to apply for the post. When the position was given to Benedetto Pallavicino (?1551-1601), Monteverdi was very disappointed, since he was seeking church employment for already some time. Three years later, in 1599, he decided to get married: he got the Duke’s permission to marry the court singer, Claudia Cattaneo. When in 1601 Pallavicino died, Monteverdi applied again for the maestro di cappella position. This time he was offered the employment. In 1607, Monteverdi composed L’Orfeo, the first of his operas, on the libretto by Alessandro Striggio.[3] However, certain events gave him little opportunity to enjoy its success – his wife, Claudia, was very ill, and Monteverdi was “weighed down by overwork and pressing debts” (Landon & Norwich 78). When Claudia died a few months later, Monteverdi was left alone with two small children. He was shaken by this event so much that he had no desire to continue composing (Monteverdi Letters). When he finally started to compose again, another tragedy occurred: just a week before he was ready to present his newly composed opera L’Arianna, the girl who was to sing the title role died. The opera was never performed, and today only one aria survives – the famous lament “Lasciatemi morire.” By 1610 Monteverdi recovered emotionally and started composing another book of madrigals – his fifth book. In the same year he published Vespers of the Blessed Virgin. He also traveled to Rome and Venice, in pursuit of better employment. And when Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga died in 1612, his son, Francesco, who ascended the throne, suddenly dismissed Monteverdi. Monteverdi needed to return to Cremona after more than twenty years of service in the Gonzaga ducal court. But in the following year, when maestro di cappella at San Marco in Venice, Giovanni Croce, died, Monteverdi immediately applied for the post, which he later won and which he held for thirty years, until his death in 1643.[4] Monteverdi proved to be an inventor and a daring composer. His music followed modern trends, and, like his soon-to-be-colleague in Venice, Dario Castello, he followed an inventive approach to music composition. The modern style – stil moderno – was desirable by audiences everywhere, “showing-off” performers through its virtuosic character and daring harmonies. While working as a court composer, Monteverdi’s opus included a large amount of secular music, primarily madrigals and canzonas[5] written to entertain his employer, as well as many wealthy patrons who were able to afford to purchase (at that time very expensive) part-books. When he moved to Venice to take a position at St. Mark’s Church, Monteverdi concentrated more on church music, and he produced several books of sacred compositions, gathered under the collection known as Selva Morale e Spirituale.[6] He also published several other compositions in musical collections with other composers. And he also revived some of his old operas and composed new ones, including Il Ritorno d’Ulisse in Patria and L’Incoronazione di Poppea.[7] One can admire Monteverdi’s rich opus, which can be compared to over two hundred cantatas that Johann Sebastian Bach[8] wrote while he worked as a cantor[9] of the Church of St. Thomas in Leipzig[10]. Like Bach, Monteverdi primarily composed original compositions (which at times he transcribed with different texts to other pieces). Contrary to, for example, Georg Friedrich Händel[11] – who literally “stole” complete compositions from other composers (such as the case with his numerous Italian Cantatas that he wrote in Rome between 1606 and 1608, which recent research shows to have been “borrowed” from Reinhard Keiser[12], Händel’s employer in Hamburg for whom he worked as a harpsichordist in a few years before he traveled to Italy) – Monteverdi was a prolific composer who always tried to express his feelings in an original way. In Venice, Monteverdi was required to compose original music for all of the festive days during the church year, as were the other musicians who were employed at St. Mark’s (such was the case with Dario Castello, who was the maestro of the Wind’s Consort at the same time when Monteverdi worked at St. Mark’s). The music ranged from solo motets to multi-voiced compositions written for chori spezzatti (double choirs), from compositions written in old style (stile antico), to those in modern style (stil moderno), from those written for choir da cappella[13] to those with instruments. His sacred works, however, are primarily considered choral, with the composition representatives such as Psalm Beatus Vir for six and Gloria for seven voices, beside his grand Vespers of the Blessed Virgin.
Monteverdi published Vespro della Beata Vergine in the same collection with a six-voice parody mass, dedicated to Pope Paul V.[14] Two different compositions in one collection demonstrated that Monteverdi was a prolific composer: the mass illustrated his ability to compose in the old Renaissance style – stile antico – which was favored by conservative Rome and the papal chapel; the Vespers demonstrated his exquisite ability and inventions in writing sacred music in new, “modern” forms and styles – stil moderno. While Monteverdi’s inventions and treatment of harmony and counterpoint were accepted and even praised by the public, he was not always complimented for them by his colleagues. In 1600 and 1603 he was attacked by the Bolognese theorist Giovanni Maria Artusi (c. 1540-1613): In 1600 a Bolognese musician, Giovanni Artusi – a sort of 17th-century Beckmesser – launched an attack on ‘the imperfections of modern music’, especially that of Monteverdi, for breaking the traditional Flemish rules of harmony and counterpoint. Monteverdi defended himself in the Preface to his Fifth Book of Madrigals concluding airily: ‘I have not the time for an elaborate argument.’ (Lendon & Norwich 78) But Monteverdi was not silent: in his Preface to the Vespers, he addressed the jealousy of his peers while greeting Pope Paul V (MS 1610): … and so that the mouths of Claudio’s wicked detractors might be closed, I bring and offer at Your most holy feet these things of mine, such as they are, the fruits of my nocurnal labour. (qtd. in John Whenham 27) History shows us that public opinion sided with Monteverdi. In 1605, for example, not only was his fifth volume reprinted within a year, but also the publisher decided to reprint all of the composer’s earlier books. Monteverdi proved to be a person of a strong and exciting temperament, to have “fire in his blood” – as his music, full of excitement, lavishing harmonies, and exuberant tempos shows. At the same time he knew how to “pay respect” to the older generation and their traditional principles. He published two completely different pieces in the same collection – Missa in illo tempore and Vespro della Beata Vergine – maybe wanting to prove once again to Giovanni Maria Artusi that he was the true maestro – the master – of music, by surprising him again with a combination of different styles and the wizardry of unifying them, while still maintaining their individual characteristics. 3 Historical Context of the Vespers Vespers of the Blessed Virgin, with all its solemnity and grandiosity, may project a vision of the grand music and the church of St. Mark in Venice. However, one must not forget that Claudio Monteverdi was not yet in Venice when he published this work in 1610. But were the Vespers intended for the church of San Marco? It is certain that Monteverdi was aiming to get a position with a church in Venice by publishing a work of such dimensions in 1610 and by publishing it by the main Venetian publisher [15] . Otherwise he could have published the collection in Rome – as he dedicated it to Pope Paul V. Vespers is a set of psalms and prayers that are prayed daily by church monks, priests, and nuns. It is not a grandiose work, unless it is presented at big church feasts. Musicologists believe that Monteverdi wrote it around 1608, and decided to publish it with a Venetian printer as a way of presenting himself to a wider audience as a composer of sacred music, while seeking better employment from the one that he had at the Gonzaga court in Mantua. The composition resembles his opera L’Orfeo (composed one year earlier) in many ways. Both pieces are actually twins, and many melodies (especially the beautiful echo effects) that we may hear in the Vespers are reworked tunes that Orfeo heard in the Underworld. Resent research shows interesting facts connected to Monteverdi’s job application in 1613, which resulted in him getting a position at the most prestigious basilica at that time – St. Mark’s in Venice. The archive documents from the Venetian State Archive show that, when Monteverdi came to Venice to audition for the job, he presented a work of his own with approximately 30 performers in the orchestra and approximately the same number of performers in the choir. The probable work for this presentation may have been exactly the Vespers of the Blessed Virgin, which he published just a couple of years earlier (Gardiner). Another theory in regards to the first performance of the Vespers is that Monteverdi might have composed it for the occasion of the birth of Francesco Gonzaga’s daughter Maria (July 29, 1609). Also, the Vespers may have been performed during the ceremonies at Santa Barbara in Mantua (Kurtzman). But whatever is the case, it is certain that the Vespers, as it was published, probably did not stand by itself as one piece, but it is actually a set of musical compositions that can be used independently or in any combination during the liturgical service. One reason to believe this is that the Vespers was published with two settings of the Magnificat, which suggests that Monteverdi wanted to present the performer with an option as to which one to perform (as vespers service calls for only one Magnificat). Another theory is that the Vespers was published together with a Mass, which, although composed in a different style, could be performed at the same service (Kurtzman). For a big feast, such as the Feast of the Assumption (of the Virgin Mary into heaven) – especially if we would celebrate it in a manner as it was celebrated in the 17th century – Vespers could be heard in its entirety (Gardiner), as the publication of 1610 suggests. Between the psalms and prayerful Antiphons, Monteverdi inserted many solo movements - jokers. These short solo concerti are love songs which incorporate sacred texts. But even some of the texts were very liberal for that time (although they are officially part of the Holy Scriptures) – for example, motets Nigra sum and Pulchra es[16] – except if we take into account the kind of services such as those that were presented in a city like Venice.[17] Maybe Monteverdi needed to demonstrate his abilities with a grandiose church work such as this one. Maybe he needed not only to prove that he was capable of composing great music, but also that he was better and more suited for the job than anyone else. He needed to prove that he was capable of leading the music program of an establishment such as San Marco, with elaborate and frequent ceremonial performances which required music for any occasion and of any style, and lead the vast number of musicians who would serve under him. H.C. Robbins Landon and John Julius Norwich[18] present a list of the basilica’s musical staff in the late 16th and early 17th centuries; the music establishment at that time included the following: 1. Maestro di cappella: his task was to oversee and direct all musical performances. At most times he was a well known composer with a comfortable salary and free lodging near the Piazza. 2. Vice maestro di cappella: This post existed from 1607 onwards. It was the vice-maestro’s task to conduct the first choir in polychoral works. 3. Maestro di concerti: he conducted the second choir. 4. Organists: There were two organists from the end of the 15th century onwards. They alternated week by week. Only on special feast days would both organists be required. In the 17th century it had become the practice for the lessons at Matins on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday of Holy Week to be accompanied by harpsichord. It was the task of the second organist to play the harpsichord. In 1588 a chamber organ was added and from the middle of the 17th century there were two chamber organists. 5. Caretaker for the organs. 6. The choir: in the 16th century this had 16 members, in the 17th century 36, in the 18th century 24. Each singer was paid up to 100 ducats a year. 7. A music copyist. 8. Custodian of the choir books. 9. Beat tapper. 10. Pitch giver. (38) If we survey the composers who served at St. Mark’s in Venice related to genre, we can see why Monteverdi decided to give all of his creative energy for this position. Then, we can also understand why he spent more time polishing this work before it was published, with clear indications[19] that he was seeking better employment. His predecessors at St. Mark’s included renown composers such as Adrian Willaert, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Claudio Merulo and Giovanni Croce. Monteverdi, who came from a small city of Cremona – completely outside of the Republic – competed with many Venetian musicians for this job.
Maestri di capelli at St. Mark’s in Venice in the 16th and the first part of the 17th centuries When one discusses the accurate performance practice of Monteverdi’s music (as with any music) one must take into consideration all aspects that would have been involved in such a venture at the time when the music was conducted by the composer. Important aspects in the preparation of this work include issues such as the types of instruments and voices to be used, pitch, temperament, tempi, etc. Monteverdi wrote the Vespers for a large ensemble of singers and instrumentalists[20]. However, we must remember that what was considered a large ensemble in the 17th century Performing Forces Based on the information presented in the score, the following exact scoring of this work is derived: · 10 voices (or vocal parts) · instrumental ensemble of two violini da brazzo, four viuole da brazzo, one contrabasso da gamba, three cornetti, three tromboni, 2 piffari, and general-bass section, which should include a minimum of one chitarrone and organo [21] (a possible addition is bass instrument, such as viola da gamba, for highly virtuosic or ground bass passages, such as in Laetatus sum). According to John Eliot Gardiner, the documentation in the Venetian State Archive shows that, at his audition for St. Mark’s in Venice, Monteverdi presented a composition of his own that was published in this town a few years earlier. The document from St. Mark’s which describes the payments issued to musicians (and instruments rented) shows that the forces consist of an orchestra of thirty instrumentalists, and a choir of approximately the same size[22]. Assuming that Vesperae was the piece that was performed, as all the indications suggest, I offer a reconstruction of the forces that Monteverdi may have used in his performance of the Vespers at the audition at St. Mark’s in 1613: Seven vocal soloists: Sopranos 2 Tenors 3 Basses 2 Choir of thirty-six singers (divided in six main sections): Cantus (Soprano I) 6 Sextus (Soprano II) 6 Altus (Alto / High Tenor) 6 Tenor (Tenor I) 6 Quintus (Tenor II) 6 Bassus (Bass) 6 Ensemble of thirty instrumentalists: Violini da brazzo (Violin I-II): 2 Viuola da brazzo (Viola I-IV): 4 Violone (8’ bass instrument, such as viola da gamba or bass violin): 1 Contrabasso da gamba (16’ bass instrument): 1 Cornetto (I-IV): 4 Trombone (Sackbutt I-IV): 4 Chitarrone (Theorbo) 2 [Arci]liuto (Archlute or Lute) 1 Organo 2 Arppa (Double Harp) 1 Piffero (Reed pipe I-II): 2 Flauto Dolce (Recorders I-VI): 6 Although it is possible to replace the organ with a harpsichord, the same document from San Marco proves that two chamber organs were brought to be used at Monteverdi’s audition, but no harpsichord. This also proves that the performance was most probably conducted from the center of the church, rather than from one or more of its galleries, and thus no organs of San Marco were used. The practice of performing from the center of the church was customary for great festivities or special occasions, such as when the Doge was present, or when foreign ambassadors were visiting the city (Gardiner). Pitch and Temperament The pitch in the 17th century was not standardized. Thus, a’ kammerton would differ from country to country, or even between cities in the same country. Such was the case in How do we know which pitch was used in the music by Monteverdi? We know this from surviving tuning forks, wind instruments (such as cornetto), or organ pipes, which were made with a fixed pitch. We know that the pitch in Rome was, therefore, around 392 Hz (equal to today’s g’), and in Venice as high as 466 Hz (equal to today’s b’ flat). The pitch in both cities remained as described throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, and that helps us to understand the principles that Handel followed while composing his Italian psalms (such as Dixit Dominus of 1607), or Vivaldi’s intentions when he composed his Four Seasons Violin Concertos or Gloria for choir and orchestra. Today, many period instrument replicas are based on two main pitches: a’=415 Hz and a’=440 Hz. Although the need for a historically accurate performance makes the need for instruments at other pitches more apparent (such as 392 and 466 Hz), the typical standardization is at these two pitches. If one is unable to perform Vespers at 466 Hz, 440 Hz is acceptable. Justification of the compromise in this case is based on a principle that we would accept the closest possible replacement for instrument or voice types that are not in existence today. This also means that it is acceptable to replace castrati with sopranos or counter-tenors, as castrati do not exist today any more (the last castratto, Alessandro Moreschi, died just after the Second World War[23]). Today, makers of period instrument replicas built baroque instruments also at 466 and 392 Hz, as well as other non-standard-pitch-based instruments – such as oboes at 403 Hz (somewhere between modern g’ and g’ sharp), as they were used in Purcell’s London at the end of the 17th century[24]. In regards to the temperament: it is certain that “equal” temperament was not in use until almost the mid 18th century. An appropriate temperament for keyboard instruments would therefore be 1/6th or 1/4th comma meantone – as it was used in the early 17th century. These two temperaments were ideal for fretted instruments such as viola da gamba or chitarrone, as well as cornets and sackbuts. Although frets can be adjusted to play as close to the modern “equal” temperament as possible, it is not possible to achieve the ideal equally-tempered sound. With instruments such as cornets and sackbutts, the case is even more difficult: the holes on these instruments were placed so that they can produce an ideal meantone-tempered sound. Furthermore, meantone temperament allows distinctions between the keys that are not evident in the equally-tempered system. The “tonal color” of each key is different in meantone, making keys such as C major or A minor much “purer” than in the equally-tempered system. Similarly, those keys with large number of accidentals may sound somewhat “out-of-tune” because they were compromised to the purity of those keys with no or only one or two accidentals. An inexperienced musician should not be afraid of non-equal tempered sounds. At the end, one may not realize that, while keyboards today are equally tempered, the human voice and string instruments, such as the violin, do not “play” as equally tempered instruments. Actually, a 1/6th or 1/4th comma meantone is not only a historically correct temperament for the performance of the composition such as Vespers of the Blessed Virgin, but it is actually much closer to the human voice. The only falsch sound that one may hear might come from the keyboard instruments during the moments when distant keys (such as B major) are played, as this sound (especially on the organ) is sustained longer. Similarly, main keys produce clearer intervals and show more sonority.[25] 5 Monteverdi’s Vespers – Analysis of the Work The sacred music of Claudio Monteverdi is characterized by the freshness of style, imaginative usage of choral forces (whether without or in combination with the instruments), harmonic simplicity, which sometimes uses unpredictable chromatic idioms to produce a sense of tension and resolution, and an appropriate representation of the text, which his music reflects. The principles that he used were the basis for a futuristic compositional style yet to come. Monteverdi’s opus was a major influence on the development of compositional techniques, and the modern style that was emerging in Europe and which today we call “Baroque”. And his Vespers present the very synthesis of ancient and modern, old and new, stile antico and stil moderno. The most solemn vespers are Vesperae Assumptionae Beatae Mariae Virginis (“Vespers for the Assumption of the Virgin Mary”), celebrated on August 15. The occasion very often dictates the order in which the movements should be performed. For this recreation, Second Vespers for the Assumption were selected as the basis. The performance that was presented in conjunction with this paper used the same order of the movements as in Monteverdi’s printed work. Also, Monteverdi’s audition was presented on August 17, 1613, which is only two days after the Feast of Assumption (Grove). Thus, the most probable order that he may have used at his audition at St. Mark’s is the following one: Canticle & Responsorium Deus in adiutorium / Domine ad adiuvandum Versicle: Canto Gregoriano / Gregorian Chant; Response by Monteverdi Antiphona I Assumpta est Maria in coelum Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Psalmus I (Psalm 109) Dixit Dominus Concerto (Motet) Nigra Sum Antiphona II Maria Virgo assumpta est Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Psalmus II (Psalm 112) Laudate pueri Concerto (Motet) Pulchra es Antiphona III In odorem Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Psalmus III (Psalm 121) Laetatus sum Concerto (Motet) Duo Seraphim Antiphona IV Benedicta filia tua Domino Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Psalmus IV (Psalm 126) Nisi Dominus Concerto (Motet) Audi coelum Antiphona V Pulchra es et decora Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Psalmus V (Psalm 147) Lauda, Jerusalem Sonata Sonata sopra “Santa Maria” Hymnus Ave maris stella Versus & Responsorium Exaltata est / Super choros Angelorum Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Antiphona VI Hodie Maria Virgo coelos ascendit: gaudete Canto gregoriano / Gregorian chant Magnificat Magnificat (a 7) While the text of the Vespers service has been introduced by the Benedictine Monks in the sixth century, by looking further into different liturgical resources – and most particularly the Breviarum Romanum from 1598 and 1603 (both published in Venice) – one can conclude that Monteverdi took the outline for the Vespers probably from one of these two publications. John Whenham also suggests to check Psalterium Chorale (Venice, 1585), Breviarii S. Barbarae (Venice, 1583), and Santa Barbara’s Ferial Psalter (101). However, all the texts are in principle the same. In Vespers, Monteverdi uses the following stylistic elements: falso bordone, cantus firmus, Monody, and cori spezzati. Wong summarizes and explains these four methods. The usage of each of these elements within the context of the Vespers will be addressed in the comprehensive analysis of the work which follows. Falso bordone – Chanting of psalms: this “device” from the early 17th century allows the listener to hear words distinctly. cantus firmus – Plainsong in long sustained notes: one voice sings the cantus firmus while the other voices perform in free manner. This technique was then somewhat out of date. Monody – Differentiating the solo voices from the accompanying instrumental lines: this rather new melodic style was essentially an aria. cori spezzati – Divided choirs: this often involved complex divisions and echo effects. (Wong, “Vespers”) The movements analyzed in this section are presented in order of their appearance, as well as their relevance to each other – in which case some of them are grouped together. Canticle & Responsorium: Deus in adiutorium – Domine ad adiuvandum Combining voices and instruments in Domine ad adiuvandum me festina, a response to the initial invocation which is based on an opening prelude from his first opera L’Orfeo, Monteverdi creates an incredible opening and sets the mood for the most solemn prayer. Layering a melody line which follows the opening responsorium – which is nothing but a one-tone chant “Domine ad adiuvandum” – with virtuosic passages in six parts[26] by cornetts, sackbutts, violini da brazzo, viuole da brazzo and basso continuo (with a possible addition of recorders and other pifferi), Monteverdi juxtaposes the raison d’être of his composition with the incredible use of stile concitato. His exciting style can be seen in all of the movements of the Vespers, both choral and soloistic, as much as it is present throughout Monteverdi’s opus. Whenham suggests that the chant version for “Deus in adiutorium” probably derived from the setting of the 1604 Guidetti’s Directorium Chori (61). And, as in L’Orfeo, Monteverdi repeats the theme three times, before concluding with Alleluia. Only in Alleluia, does he add new material, as a response to the preceding toccata, as well as the announcement for the opening Psalm. This is the only time that the listener can hear the “Alleluia” text that is not used always throughout the church year. Andrew Parrott, in article “Getting it Right”, explains the usage of this shout, which is omitted from the liturgy during Advent and Lent. However, “Alleluia” can be heard during that time only as a part of Vesperae Ceremoniae (Parrott 531-5).
Cantus firmus upon which Monteverdi based his opening movement (source: Plainsong for Schools) Monteverdi entitles this movement “sex vocib[us] & sex Instrumentis, si placet” (tr. “six voices and six instruments which may be omitted”), which suggests that the response may be chanted as falsobordone (Whenham, 61). However, I had an opportunity to experiment with this idea, as well as to hear it at the recording by Concerto Italiano (although adapted from different Breviary)[27]. The result was in both cases unconvincing when instruments are not used. Antiphons and solo Concerti: In the liturgical setting, between the movements of the Vespers interplayed with Monteverdi’s own music, the Antiphons should be chanted. They are a crucial part of the ceremony and provide a transition between Psalmi and Concerti. Depending on the Feast Day on which the Vespers are sung, appropriate Antiphons were selected. They are chanted on different melodies, composed in various church scales – toni.[28] Figures 1 to 8, although relating to a specific psalm and providing the tonus on which Monteverdi composed the particular movement, also provide a scheme of different toni which could be used as a basis for antiphons at the different times of the year. Monteverdi was a very inventive and daring composer. As mentioned earlier, between the Psalm movements, Hymnus and Magnificat he also inserted solo movements – jokers. These songs for one, two or three voices are nothing less but secular love melodies, set to sacred texts. Through them Monteverdi demonstrates his exquisite knowledge of human voice and its abilities, since many of these songs are very virtuosic. Opening Psalm: Dixit Dominus Monteverdi based his psalm-settings on different canti firmi (melodies), as he clearly states in his title to the work: Vespro della Beata Vergineda Concerto composta sopra canti firmi[29]The first Psalm which appears immediately after the opening Antiphon (and in case when the antiphon is omitted – which should be only in (certain) concert performances – after the opening Responsorium) is the Psalm 109, Dixit Dominus (“The Lord said unto my Lord”).[30] The Psalm is set for six voices and six instruments, with instrumental ritornelli that, as Monteverdi suggests in the score, “may be omitted”. Although the instruments are not specified, we can reconstruct the six parts based upon the opening toccata, Magnificat (which both specify which instrument plays which part), as well as the list of instruments that Monteverdi provided in the organ part-book[31].
Figure 1 (source: Whenham) The cantus firmus is based on Mode 4. Figure 1 shows the melody on which Monteverdi based his polyphonic setting of the Psalm. The opening statement is rhythmicized. The same case is with several of the incipits within the Psalm. However, four of them are composed in falsobordone style with an undesignated rhythm. The rhythmicized examples, thus, provide a solution for other incipits, which provide the text placed under only one long nota brevis. However, although Monteverdi suggests rhythmicizing them as well, he doesn’t suggest that one should distribute the syllabi over one, two or three bars. Therefore, several examples discussed in the section which analyze different recordings provide several different solutions. The most extreme of two ends are Andrew Parrott’s and John Eliot Gardiner’s examples – in both of their recordings they distribute the syllabi differently. I love to use the latter example as a model for the performance of this Psalm presented at the Vespers performance in conjunction with this paper. Although not identical to Gardiner’s example, Gardiner’s example seems to work better when an ensemble of the larger size is used. Furthermore, as it was discussed previously, Monteverdi also used a larger ensemble at his own audition. Although this does not suggest that Monteverdi would not perform the Vespers with a smaller ensemble – such as the case with the recording done by Andrew Parrott (he uses one-on-a-part ensemble in most cases) – it also does not suggest that one should only use a large ensemble. Actually, depending on the forces available, as well as issues such as the available instrumentarium, the color of singers’ voices and even the temperament used, the choices should be made accordingly. In the other verses of Dixit Dominus, Monteverdi uses different voices, which create a variety as well as a sense of strophic composition. The composer starts (after the initial invocation) with the full ensemble, and in such manner he finishes. But within these two opposite ends (verses one and eight), in verse three, “Virgam virtutis”, he uses a soprano soloist followed by an ensemble of three voices – SSB. In verse five, “Juravit Dominus” he cleverly uses lower voices, starting with a tenor soloist followed by TTB. And, again, two verses later, in verse seven, “Judicabit in nationibus”, he uses a combination of both – ATB – followed by a full six-voiced-ensemble. “Gloria Patri”, which is a customary addition to each Psalm, starts with a solo intonatione (by a tenor), followed by the full ensemble. In “Gloria”, Monteverdi also starts with a different pitch than in the other verses of the Psalm – while each one starts on a’, “Gloria” starts with a g’ – like in “G”loria. Solo Concerti: Nigra Sum and Pulchra es The two concerti, Nigra Sum and Pulchra es, both call for soloists. Nigra sum is written for tenor solo with continuo, and Pulchra es for two female sopranos, rather than two castrati. Whenham suggests that Nigra sum is given to a lower voice probably “because its darker colour matched the image of blackness in the first line” (50). But he also suggests that Pulchra es would be sung by male voices, as females were not able to work in church establishments such as San Marco. Although this is true, I have my reservations towards the “exclusivity”. A few years ago, I was intrigued by life story of Veronica Franco, a poetess and Venetian courtesan.[32] Through her story, we learn that some of the most educated women in Venice were courtesans, who were allowed to enter establishments such as libraries or churches – places where “ordinary” woman were not allowed to enter. They were also entertainers – musicians – present in every-day life of the Venetian nobility, and regular “guests” in the Doge’s Palace. I would not be surprised if Monteverdi would have been allowed to bring female singers to an audition presided by the Doge. Especially since he already had a reputation as the best Italian secular composer, who employed female singers in his madrigals and operas. I bring further examples in support of this statement: 1. Pulchra es is very virtuosic in nature, and written in a style which calls for vocalists experienced in this type of music. These “kinds” of singers were not employed in the church choirs, as the need for virtuosity didn’t in principle exist. 2. Even if San Marco would have employed virtuoso singers in one of its choirs (such as the case with church musical establishments in Mantua), we know from Monteverdi’s own testimony that San Marco’s choir was in a pitiful state at the time of his arrival. 3. Monteverdi was often accompanied by his own singers on his trips. 4. The paintings from that period very often portray women musicians. These statements also support Monteverdi’s call for a virtuoso singer in Audi Coelum, but this movement will be analyzed separately, following this section. Nigra sum and Pulchra es are clearly linked to each other. With their texts drawn from the “Song of Songs” by King Solomon[33], they are both love songs which Monteverdi sets “in styles virtually indistinguishable from those of contemporary secular songs of the same kind” (Whenham, 50). Also, a Marian correlation was drawn before Monteverdi by the liturgically prescribed third and fifth Antiphons of Second Vespers for the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. Thus, the Breviary made the whole job for Monteverdi easier, but let us explore further reasons for the usage of these texts: Nigra sum, the voluptuous text from the Old Testament, is in fact appropriate for a Marian Vespers. It was taken to refer not to Solomon's consort, but to Mary as the consort of God. Monteverdi's setting a striking example of monody, a solo motet of recitative-like lines with ornamental, highly emotional and compelling musical phrases to bring out the words. (Wong, “Vespers”) A similar suggestion about Nigra sum as an appropriate text for the Vespers is given by Whenham. He, however, does not reject the essence of Solomon’s text, which “has been interpreted as depicting the Lord’s relationship with The first line of ‘Nigra sum’ – ‘I am black, but beautiful’ – may seem puzzling at first, but the biblical context makes it clear that the maiden is sunburned from working in the vineyard, rather than literally ‘black’; her complexion does not match the urban notion of beauty, hence her need to justify it. (A more literal interpretation of the line has led to the veneration of black Madonnas in various parts of Europe.) (49) Although Whenham’s view may follow the trend of Renaissance and early Baroque Christian doctrine, Solomon may very well have spoken about a black-skinned lady. Furthermore, although the Bible talks about the maiden “sunburned from working in the vineyard”, the message may have been hidden between the lines. The black-skinned lady with whom the King fell in love in The Song of Solomon may very well be the Queen of Sheba, who visited the Wise King, and with whom Solomon fell in love.[34] Nevertheless, the Marian connection exists, even if it has been created by the Catholic Church.[35] Nigra sum is of a declamatory character, while Pulchra es is of a more virtuosic and lyrical. They together create a nice contrast with the other movements, as well as a sense of progression, as the one-voiced Nigra sum is placed earlier in the Vespers ceremony. Concerto: Audi coelum Eco Aria Audi coelum is set for two equal male voices (tenors or baritones), which are placed in dialogo with each other. In it, Monteverdi follows the example which he earlier employed with great success in L’Orfeo: although he writes eco, which is characterized by the repeat of the last syllables of each of the stanzas by another singer, Monteverdi placed the words so cleverly that each eco is also a response to the previous invocation. For example, let us look into the first stanza, which reads as follows:
The second soloist responds in eco to the last word of the stanza, “gaudio”, by singing “audio (“I hear”). Throughout the eight verses of the concerto, each eco response confirms the statement invoked in the previous stanza. The choir of six voices and instruments enters in two instances, joining the soloists in a contrapuntal, dance-like, response. Monteverdi introduces the full ensemble after the soloist’s invocation “omnes”, or “all”, which obviously, in a practical way, sends an open invitation that all should join. Monteverdi used soloists against the ensemble earlier in his madrigal from the Fifth Book (1605), “Ahi, come a un vago sol” (Whenham 55). However, in this movement he uses the choir only in a short section, after which he quickly returns to the usual setting of two soloists. Concerto a 3: Duo seraphim The most exciting of all motets, Duo Seraphim, is placed third in Monteverdi’s publication. It also calls for three tenors, from whom it demands a considerable degree of virtuosity. In the opening line (“Two Seraphims”), the composer with great excitement, but in a solemn mode, uses two tenors, who make melodic progression by layering a sequence of dissonances and consonances after each other, until the melody reaches its climax with a series of melisms in “Sanctus”. The third voice joins in the second verse of the concerto, with the line “There are three...” Like in Audi coelum, Monteverdi most skillfully uses the text from the Holy Testament as the cue for introducing a new soloist. The material is pretty much the same – similar progression of chords, and then the virtuosic passages in a style that has been earlier heard in L’Orfeo. Whenham reminds us that Monteverdi “used a similarly florid style for the singing of Orpheus, the demigod of song, in the great Act III aria ‘Possente spirto’” (44). And Monteverdi, as Whenham quotes him again, in a letter dated 9th of December 1616 states how much he liked in theatrical music “to hear supernatural beings singing in an ornate style” (44; also Monteverdi Letters). This explains the composer’s exposition of dramatic elements in Duo Seraphim. This is also the only motetus which is written on a sacred text otherwise found in the usual Ordinary of the Mass – Sanctus. Whenham claims that Duo Seraphim is placed in the print as the third because the motets are in this manner placed “in order of the number of voices required” (43). He also suggests that it “is worth considering [it] first” for the performance (43). Nevertheless, I disagree with the first of his statements: there is no case to support it, as the motets are, in the publication, placed between the psalms, and not as a separate “block” of compositions. Monteverdi, thus, obviously wants to suggest the order in which they should be performed. In regards to Whenham’s second claim, I do agree with him, but he doesn’t tell us anything new, as Monteverdi himself suggests this even in his subtitle “suited to the chapels or chambers of princes” (this means that any of the concertos could be taken out from the publication and performed as independent compositions) (MS 1610). Psalmi concertati: Laudate pueri and Laetatus sum Two concertato-style Psalms, Laudate pueri and Laetatus sum were written for eight and six voices respectively. While the first is set within the score as for two choirs, it is actually written for an eight-voiced ensemble and bassus generalis. Unassigned instrumental parts can double the vocal lines, but this should be done only when all voices sing together. When soloists are called, these sections within the Psalm are accompanied by basso continuo and possibly an additional instrument which would double the melody in cantus firmus. These solo sections are usually for three voices, of which one “sings” on cantus firmus, while the other two voices create a contrapuntal embellishment.
Figure 2 (Whenham) As Wong notes, in Laudate pueri, the choir sings together in “doxology”: At the words “Sicut erat in principio,” literally “As it was in the beginning,” Monteverdi recapitulates the music that began the movement. This structural device has been popular with composers for ages, and Monteverdi uses it more than once in the Vespers. More unusual is his treatment of the final Amen where the full eight-voice chorus dwindles down to a tenor duet. (Wong, “Vespers”) Laetatus sum is one of my favorite choruses. The live movement of bassus generalis provides a root upon which all other vocal and instrumental lines are built. The opening line “Laetatus sum in his quae dicta sunt mihi” may be understood as invocatione (it is in the tenor line), with a response from the whole section with “in domum Domini ibimus”.[36] The whole choir follows in a falsobordone manner, as well as in a syncopated rhythm. Monteverdi moves the tactus in these sections constantly, so that bar lines virtually disappear. But this is not something unusual, since Monteverdi’s first publication, as it was the case with manuscripts of many other composers of that period, uses the bar line only occasionally, and then primarily to divide different sections. If performing from a modern edition, these rhythmic changes may be more or less obvious (on paper). After the choir sections, virtuoso passages were given to two voices of the same kind – first tenors, then sopranos, and afterwards combining these two. This variety of sound, combined with the 6-voiced chorus sections, brings a nice contrast within the movement which, as other psalms, culminates in “Gloria Patri”. A final “Amen” brings a nice sense of tension and resolution. Figures 2 and 3 show the melodies on which Monteverdi based the Psalm settings, and toni that he used (Laudate pueri Dominum is in Tone 8, while Laetatus sum in Tone 2).
Figure 3 (Whenham) Cori spezzati: Nisi Dominus and Lauda Jerusalem The two remaining psalms are set for ten and seven voices, and both call for double choirs: Nisi Dominus for two choirs of five voices, and Lauda Jerusalem for two three-voiced choirs, with the main melody in tenor around which these two choirs create a counterpoint.
Figure 4 (Whenham) The cantus firmus is in Nisi Dominus “hidden” between other vocal and instrumental lines. In the first choir of five it is given to tenor (I), and in the second choir to tenor II (or baritones). They have same identical notes, and serve two purposes, providing sufficient basis to the other voices within their choirs, as well as juxtaposing the melody which is “competing” with other syncopated lines. One would certainly assign instruments such as sackbutts to these two lines, while assigning other, more virtuosic, instruments (violins and cornettos, for instance) to other lines. In the middle section, the choirs sing in dialogo. Finally, they join in a more steady rhythmic pattern in the “Gloria” section.
Figure 5 (Whenham) The main part in Lauda Jerusalem is given to the tenor section. They very much provide the first “choir” [of three], although all tenors sing in unison. Invoked by their first “Lauda”, the other two choirs respond with full voice, and this alternation is present almost constantly throughout the movement. It is exciting to listen to each choir individually, as each one of them provides a harmonic structure on its own. When all three are combined, the incredible counterpoint that Monteverdi offers can only be compared to the great Johann Sebastian Bach’s – and he lived almost a century later. A highly syncopated “Amen,” which for the first time appears so obviously in this Psalm, tells us not only that this is the final Psalm in the Vespers ceremony, but also announces what follows, an Offertorium (for which a Sonata has been provided), Hymnus and the concluding Magnificat. Sonata sopra “Sancta Maria” This is the first of Monteverdi’s pieces that has been published in modern time (Whenham 56). It is based on a chamber canzona by Francesco Crotti (Wong, “Vespers”), and the Sonata has been considered one of the most Venetian examples from Monteverdi’s opus “because of its obvious similarity to the canzonas and sonatas of Giovanni Gabrieli” (Whenham 56). Monteverdi assigns eight instrumental lines and bassus generalis, as well as a single vocal line. He divides them in a similar manner as Lauda Jerusalem, i.e. in a cori spezzati manner. The first “choir” consists of two violini and one vuiola da brazzo, the second of two cornetti, and the third one of three tromboni. Generalbass “accompanies” all three instrumental choruses, as well as the fourth one, which consists of a single line, given to sopranos, and which calls for nine invocations on cantus firmus, “Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis.”
Figure 6 (Whenham) Hymnus: Ave maris stella Ave maris stella (“Hail, Star of the sea”) is a Marian hymn which belongs to the regular Vespers “repertoire”, together with Salve Regina and Ave Maria. Monteverdi assigns seven verses of the hymn in a traditional 16th century counterpoint, alternating each of the verses with different ensembles. The first and last verses are given to double four-voiced choirs. An instrumental ritornello follows each of the verses, with an exception of the sixth verse which directly “flows” into the final one. Verses two and three are given to each of two choirs retrospectively. The fourth, fifth, and sixth verses are assigned to soloists, who are accompanied by the organ.
Figure 7 shows different versions of canti firmi used since 16th century (Whenham) Obviously, Ave Maris stella is an example of Monteverdi’s writing in stile antico. Furthermore, its simplicity calls for possible congregational participation, especially in verses four, five and six – those marked in the publication as assigned to vocal soloists. Even today, the old custom of alternating congregational singing with the choir, which usually opens (or closes) the hymn, is present. Thus, it seems logical that at San Marco this hymn was exactly the moment when the opportunity for congregational singing would be given: the choir would open with eight-voiced motetus, then each of the two chori on different galleries would sing one verse, and then the opportunity will be given to the congregation – which may very well be led by a cantor (i.e. soloist). The final verse would be, again, sung by all choirs. Magnificat (a 7) This Canticle of the Blessed Virgin is based on tone 1, and Figure 8 shows the example of the melody on which Monteverdi based this 7-voiced, as well as his parallel published 6-voiced, setting. Either of the settings may be used in Vespers performance, but it seems that Monteverdi intended to use the 7-voiced version, and he placed the 6-voiced version as an alternative. By inspecting the manuscript, we will notice that Monteverdi placed the 7-voiced version first, and it is placed immediately following the Hymnus. He also assigns the instruments, and the instrumentarium is of the same type as with the opening toccata or Sonata sopra.[37] Magnificat for 6 voices does not require any other instruments but the organ. It is logical that Monteverdi would use the version for 7 voices rather than the other one for bigger festivals, especially if he would already have instruments on disposal. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
